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A binary system uses just 2 symbols to represent all information. The symbols could be anything like + and -, or 0 and 1. The great advantage of the binary system is that the digits 1 and 0 can be represented by electrical circuits that can exist in one or two states – current is either flowing or not flowing, and a circuit is either closed or open, on or off. A binary digit (1 or 0) is known as a ‘bit’, short for Binary digiT. In most computers today, bits are grouped together in 8-bit bytes. A byte can hold 28 different combinations of 0s and 1s, which means that, for example, 256 different characters can be represented. One byte holds one character. Computer Memory The memory of a computer can be thought of as a series of boxes, each containing 8 bits (1 byte), and each with its own unique address, counting from zero upwards. The memory capacity of a computer is measured in thousand-byte units called kilobytes, megabytes or gigabytes. These measures can be abbreviated to Kb, Mb and Gb. These are all powers of 2; thus although 1 Kb is often thought of as being 1,000bytes it is actually 1024 bytes! Thus 210 bytes = 1024 = 1Kb (1 kolobyte is about 1,000 bytes) 220 bytes = 1024 x 1024 = 1Mb (1 megabyte is about 1 million bytes) 230 bytes = 1024 x 1024 x 1024 = 1Gb (1 gigabyte is about 1000 million bytes) 240 bytes = 1024 x 1024 x 1024 x 1024 = 1Tb (1 terabyte is about 1,000,000 million bytes) RAM Random Access Memory or RAM is used as a temporary storage area for data during normal processing. The pc uses RAM in a similar way to how you use a desk. Things that are being on are placed in RAM where the processor can reach them quickly. The system assigns addresses to data specifying exactly where in the RAM the specific data can be found. Data that isn’t being worked on is sent back to the hard disk (like a filing cabinet) or deleted. RAM therfore plays an essential part in a PC and nothing would work without it. Without enough memory, a PC can spend too much time reading data from the hard disk and starving the CPU in the process. Adding RAM to an older PC can give it a new lease of life and arguably increase the performance of the PC more than any other upgrade. Windows requires at least 32mb of RAM and preferably 64Mb which is the minimum that most new PC’s are supplied with. System memory is easy to identify-it is in the form of one or more low thin cards sitting in rows on the motherboard. These cards measure roughly 10cm long by 2cm high and include a number of small black chips mounted on them. Inside these black chips are many, many tiny transistors which the PC uses to store information of 0s and 1s. Ram is a volatile – that is, the contents are lost when the system powers down. It is often referred to as dynamic RAM (DRAM) as it needs to constantly receive electrical signals to keep data present. Even a brief disruption of power forces the system to reboot. This is beacause the memory space is emptied and the PC forgets everything it knew and assumes that it has just been turned on. Ram usually comes in standard formats, enabling you to plug new memory into the sockets on the motherboard. Types of RAM This is currently available in two forms: SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module) and DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module). All of these cards have connector pins on their lower edge. The fewer pins on the card, the fewer bits the system can move in and out of RAM at any one time, thereby affecting the performance of the PC. SIMMs can have 30 or 72 pins although most manufacturers now use 72-pin SIMMs (referred to as EDO or Extended Data Out RAM). These offer capacaties of up to 128mb per module. When you purchase 30-pin SIMMs you generally need to do so in pairs, as for example a pair of 32-bit SIMMs are used to yield 64-bit access. The current generation of DIMMs are much faster and are currently available with 168 pins. These are available with capacaties of up to 256Mb on a single card. Three types of DIMM are generally available: 66MHz EDO, 66MHz SDRAM or the new fast 100MHz SDRAM which is becoming the most popular. SDRAM or Synchronous Dynamic Random Acces Memory is one of the fastest memory designs available and is particularly suited for multimedia tasks. SIMMS and DIMMS and their respective motherboard sockets are made using two main technologies; gold-plate and tin-plate. The main difference is cost, with tin-plated connectors being much cheaper. For upgrades it is advisable not to mix the metals as this can cause problems. Fit only tin-plated SIMMs/DIMMs to tin-plated sockets and gold-plated sockets. Memory Banks When fitting these memory modules in a motherboard, it is important to know the bank layout. Memory must be fitted in banks starting with bank 0, then bank 1, bank 2 and so on. Each bank must be full before the PC can use the bank. Cache Memory Today’s processors often run too fast for even the fastest system RAM. Processors can run two to five times faster than the motherboard. To help the rest of the system catch up, motherboard makers began by putting a small store of very fast memory between the processor and RAM called secondary cache (or L2 cache). This L2 cache in Pentium and faster systems is made up of extrememly fast silicon memory called Static Ram or SRAM which is about six to eight times faster than main system memory! Unlike system memory SRAM requires no refresh electrical signal from the system which cuts down access times and results in much faster performance. This cache memory is about ten times more expensive than system RAM which is one reason that caches tend to be small. Some pentium processors have L2 cache built into the processor package which makes cache upgrades impossible unless the processor is replaced. ROM Motherboards contain a special set of memory chips quite separate from the main memory made up of SIMMs and DIMMs which are used for loading and running applications. This extra memory is the BIOS (Basic Input Output System). BIOS information may be stored partly in ROM and partly in CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) RAM. ROM (Read Only Memory) is non-volatile memory in that it keeps information intact even when the power is turned off, whereas CMOS RAM is maintained by a backup battery when the PC is turned off. The BIOS is very important – without it nothing in the PC would work. It stores information about things like your hard drive, floppy drives, the amount and type of memory etc. When the PC is first switched on the BIOS is activated, checking the memory and performing other system checks (we will look at this later on in course). If the BIOS checks are successful, the operating system then loads. There are two types of BIOS: flash and nonflash. Most recent systems use a flash BIOS which can easily be updated using software on a floppy disk, as opposed to nonflash BIOS which can only be upgraded by physically replacing the BIOS chip. When a PC first boots up the BIOS information is briefly displayed. Hitting the Pause key gives the user time to read the information. Most systems also have a BIOS utility that can be accessed during the initial boot by pressing a particular key sequence that is specified in the system documentation. It is a text-based utility that provides choices for managing settings and capabilities. We will discuss this further later in the course. Task 3 Write down instructions in, installing system memory. Think about safety procedures. Task 3.1 Open up a new file in Notepad and insert the sentence, "Four score and seven years ago" in it. Save the file to disk under the name bitsandbytes.txt. Then use the explorer and look at the size of the file. You will find that the file has a size of 30 bytes on disk: 1 byte for each character. If you add another word to the end of the sentence and re-save it, the file size will jump to the appropriate number of bytes. Each character consumes a byte. Task 3.2 Read the bits and bytes handout. What are the following : (use the correct abbreviations and size) 2.4mb = 3 gig = 204kb = Task 3.2 Research and find out a new type of memory – DDR. What does it stand for and how fast is it compared to other memory types ie. SDRAM. Ry and put forward a technical specification based on what you have learnt today. .;<YZ€ЄЅРСџ-;47OP—™žЈЌ<LMN  # 2 S T U X o v › œ    О Ф ь э ю ё   H J N O P h l ЈЌ&'456`d‡‹еиуфєёъёъёъёъёълйвЭЩЩЩЩЩЦЩвЭЦЩЦЦЩЦЦЩЦЦЩЩвЭЩЩЩвЭЩЩЩвCJ5\ 5>*\ 5<>*\<CJOJQJ^JaJmH sH  aJ mH sH aJ 5>*\aJ mH sH N-.;Y€ЄРџ   ;<LMNb  §ћћћћћћћћћћљћћћћћћћћћћљћћћћћt&u&}&ўўў   T œ э H I J N O P   eкл./Й%&'456vwДљљїїїїїїѕїїїїїїїїїїїїїѕїїљљљ ЦрР!ДЕnoежуфхЯанопгдpquvwЪЫŽ! 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