ࡱ> 7 cbjbjUU /7|7|TZg lPPPP    99989,9L `iz<;<;R;R;h;D?^? j?hhhhhhh$j li r?>@?r?r?iDPPR;h;>iDDDr?PR; h;hDr?hDDNINd6 fh;0; ;8 `29Af0f0i0`if0nCnfD  PPPP  AS Level Module 2 Information : Management and Manipulation Lecture Four Software Nature, Capabilities and Limitations Lecturer: Deepak Gautam Email: gautamd@wolverhamptoncollege.ac.uk Room: 120, Wulfrun Campus Software Nature, Capabilities and Limitations The term software covers the collection of programs usually supplied by the manufacturer of the computer. These programs protect the user from the enormous complexity of the computer system, and enable the computer to be used with maximum effect by a wide variety of people, many of whom will know very little about the inner workings of computers. Computers require two types of software: applications software such as word processing, spreadsheet or graphics packages, and operating systems software to control and monitor the running of application programs, and to allow users to communicate with the computer. The following diagram illustrates the categories of software: CATEGORIES OF SOFTWARE  SYSTEMS SOFTWARE  APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE  Operating System Software System Service  Graphical User Interface User Program Commercial Package  Language Processor  Utility Special Purpose General Purpose DOS MacOS Windows -- (95 / 98 / 2000) Windows NT Unix Linux  Pascal C++ Visual Basic Cobol Fortran Debug Winzip FTP Backup Perform Virus Internet MS-Win Apple Mac GEM Arc Sun  Macros Templates HTML Stock Payroll CAD Taxes Pension Word Excel Lotus123 Access Foxpro  Operating System Software? The operating system (OS) for a standalone microcomputer system will be very much simpler than that of a supercomputer which is controlling hundreds of terminals and running many different kinds of job simultaneously. Nevertheless, all operating systems perform certain basic functions, including: Memory management. Most computers nowadays are capable of holding several programs in memory simultaneously, so that a user can switch from one application to another. The operating system has to allocate memory to each application as well as to itself! If the OS detects that there is insufficient memory to load an application that the user has asked for, it may swap another application (or part of it) out to disk temporarily, and reload it when required, swapping something else out to disk. This takes time, which is why increasing memory may have the effect of speeding up the computers performance. The technique of swapping part of the contents of memory out to disk is known as virtual memory, because it makes the computer appear to have more memory than it actually does. Resource allocation and scheduling. In larger computer systems which are capable of running several programs at once (multiprogramming), the OS is responsible for allocating processing time, memory and input-output resources to each one. Backing store management. The OS controls the transfer of data from secondary storage (e.g. disk) to memory and back again. It also has to maintain a directory of the disk so that files and free space can be quickly located. Interrupt handling. The OS detects many different kinds of interrupt such as for example a user pressing the Enter key on the keyboard, a printer sending a message that it is out of paper, the realtime clock interrupting to indicate that the processor should be allocated to the next user in a multi-user system, a hardware or software malfunction. Allowing a user to communicate with the computer. The user gives instructions to the computer to start a program, copy a file, send a message to another user, and so on by typing in commands recognised by the operating system or by using a mouse to point and click in a graphical user interface such as Windows 95. System Service Language Processors When it is considered that a typical program might contain tens of thousands of machine code instructions it might seem that programming is a formidable task. However there is now a lot of programming languages which provide a method of specifying complex processing tasks in a near English form. These are not readily understood by the computer but other programs called language processors or translator, perform the task of converting the near English instructions into usable machine language code. System Service Utility Programs As well as the basic operating system, the systems software available to users includes numerous utility programs, such as: Virus checkers which check disks and memory for viruses and delete them if detected; Security and accounting software which checks user IDs and passwords, counts and reports the number of attempts made to log on under each user ID, the amount of processor time used at each session, total login time and so on; File management utilities which attempt to repair corrupted files, reorganise files on disk so that free space is defragmented (which can improve performance), zip (compress) files so that they occupy less space if for example you want to make a backup copy of a large file onto a floppy disk. Heathcote 2000 describes various operating systems as follows:- The DOS operating system Two operating systems currently dominate the microcomputer world; Windows and the Apple Macintosh (MacOS) operating system. In 1981, IBM purchased from a tiny company called Microsoft Corporation an operating system which it called PC-DOS (Personal Computer Disk Operating System) for its new microcomputer. Bill Gates, the head of Microsoft, retained the right to sell the same operating system to other computer companies, under the name MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System), with the result that it rapidly became the most popular operating system in the world, with over 150 million copies sold worldwide. DOS tells the computer how to format, read and write information on either floppy disks or hard disks. It manages peripheral devices such as the printer and keyboard, and controls the execution of application software. It also specifies how many files can be held in a disk folder, what constitutes an acceptable file or folder name, the number of bytes that can be on a disk, the number of bytes of memory usable by a program. DOS is essentially a command-driven interface, meaning that the user has to type in commands in exactly the correct syntax to perform any operation. This allows complex co to be entered to customise the operating system for a particular user, and experienced users may be able to perform operations faster using DOS than by using a mouse and menus or icons in a Windows interface. A DOS prompt appearing on a blank screen shows which drive and folder are current, e.g. C: \ WINDOWS To change drive, the user types the characters shown in bold; C: \ Windows>A: and the prompt changes to A:> To display a folder of files held on A, the user types the word DIR A: >DIR The Apple Macintosh graphical user interface (GUI) While Microsoft were developing their DOS operating system, the Apple Computer Corporation were working on a completely different way of communicating with a microcomputer. In 1984, Apple brought out their most powerful PC, the Macintosh, complete with the WIMP interface that has now become universal. WIMP stands for Windows, Icons, Mouse and Pull-down menus or alternatively, Windows, Icons, Menu, Pointer and the term user-friendly was more or less invented to describe this approach. The MacintOsh could do things that the IBM PC could not, such as having more than one application open at once, each in its own window, and transferring data between applications. Unfortunately for Apple, from being the most popular PC in the late 1970s, they rapidly fell behind IBM even after the success of their graphical user interface. What went wrong? The major problem lay in the lack of software packages written especially for the Mac. Apple, unlike IBM, owned both the hardware and the operating system, and refused to license the operating system to any other company, so that while salts of PC clones mushroomed, Apple retained a much smaller niche market. Software developers concentrated on developing software for PCs running MS-DOS because this was a much larger market, cyst though the operating system was inferior to Apples. DOS with Windows The early versions of Windows, including Windows 3.1 and 3.11, were not full operating systems. They provided an operating environment or graphical user interface (GUI) that operated under the control of DOS. Since Windows 3.11 is not an actual operating system, DOS has to be loaded into memory first when the machine is switched on. One primary objective of Windows 3.1 was to allow multi-tasking, allowing a user to have several applications running simultaneously and to switch between them. With multi-tasking, there is no need to close one application before starting another. The concept is analogous to working at a desk; you might start to write a report, then decide to check your diary and make a phone call, and use your calculator to work out a couple of figures to include in the report. Several desktop accessory programs are supplied with Windows, including 1. Calculator. Calendar, for displaying a calendar in month or day format and setting alarms to beep at specific times. Notepad, for writing brief notes. Card file, for keeping a catd index, say of names and addresses. Clock for displaying the current time. Paintbrush, a simple drawing package. Write, a simple word processing package. Clipboard, for temporarily saving anything such as text, a graphic, spreadsheet or screenshot, temporarily in memory so that it can be pasted into another application. Terminal, for communicating with another computer. Windows 95, 98, 2000 a full operating system Windows 95, unlike previous versions of Windows, was in itself a full operating system offering true multi-tasking, and taking full advantage of the 32-bit architecture of newer PCs. This means, effectively, that applications will run faster under Windows 95 (and its successors) than under Windows 3.11. Other improvements include a completely redesigned interface, and the ability to use long file names rather than being restricted to 8 characters. Windows 95 and subsequent versions also provide Plug and Play support designed to make it install peripherals such as a new printer. The device merely needs to be plugged in and the user a select Add New Hardware from Control Panel in the Settings menu to be taken through a few for the device to be automatically configured with the appropriate driver. Many users view such tasks with a degree of trepidation and scepticism and refer to the procedure as Plug and Play. UNIX Unix is a general-purpose, multi-user, multi-tasking operating system written in C, which has been around since the early l970s. Unlike other operating systems, UNIX is available on a wide variety of platforms, which is to say that it can be used on computers from many different manufacturers. This means that users can select hardware from different manufacturers and use the same software on different types of hardware, which is not the case with other operating systems traditionally supplied with the hardware. Linux Linux is an operating system created by Linus Torvalds, a Finnish programmer. It has been developed by thousands of volunteers, many of whom are regarded as some of the best programmers in the world. It is available free and can be downloaded from the Internet, and for many young programmers, the beauty of it is that you can pick it up and start improving it immediately. It is said to be far more bug-free than Windows 2000, which at 35 million lines of code, is the biggest program ever written.  Heathcote 2000 describes Generic Software for:- Word processing Spreadsheets Databases and Electronic mail Presentation Graphics Application Generators Report Generators Web Browsers  Capabilities of Software Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) Using OLE, it is possible to share information between programs. For example, if a report is being written in Word which requires the use of a spreadsheet or chart created in Excel, the spreadsheet can be either linked to. or embedded in, the document. In the Word menu. selecting Insert, Object and then Create from file in the next window brings up the following screen:  The spreadsheet Wolverhampton College.xls is then linked into the report. Wolverhampton College.xls spreadsheet Foundation IntermediateAS levelA LevelAdvancedHNC199812 4274899397199914 4678919297 About linked and embedded objects The main differences between linked objects and embedded objects are where the data is stored and how it is updated after you place it in the destination file. With a linked object, the original information remains stored in the source file. The destination file displays a representation of the linked information but stores only the location of the original data. The linked information is updated automatically if you change the original data in the source file. For example, if you select a range of cells in a Microsoft Excel workbook and then paste the cells as a linked object in a Word document, the information is updated in Word if you change the information in your workbook. Use linked objects if you want the information to reflect any changes to the original data, or file size is a consideration. In contrast, an embedded object becomes part of the destination file. Because an embedded object has no links to the source file, the object is not updated if you change the original data. You can still edit a spreadsheet or other object embedded in Word, though, by double-clicking it to open and edit it using Excel. Portability of Data Portability is the ability to run the same program on different types of computer. It can also refer to the ability to transfer a file from one computer to another. For all sorts of reasons, its important to be able to transfer data between applications and between computers of the same or different types, perhaps using different operating systems. For example: When writing a report in Word, you want to be able to insert an Excel spreadsheet in the report. When in a desktop publishing system, you want to import graphics from a drawing package. When doing research work, you want to download articles from the Internet When you want to e-mail your friend on a Unix machine in Hull from your PC in Southampton, and send her a scanned photograph she requested. Files (binary, text or graphical) can be downloaded from the Internet using ftp (File Transfer Protocol) software that can copy files between different types of computer. Problems with portability There are several reasons why files may not be portable. A document created using one word processing package (e.g. Word) commonly cannot be read by a different word processing package (e.g. Word Perfect) running on the same computer. Different formatting codes are used by different packages; for example, the infonnation that a word or paragraph is in bold text must be stored along with the actual text, but exactly how this information is coded varies between packages. For this reason, most word processing packages allow documents to be stored in Text only format. This strips out all the formatting information and any graphics, leaving only the text, which can be read into a different package and reformatted. A document created on one computer using a particular word processor appears differently on the screen of another computer running the same word processing package. Some word processors (e.g. Word Perfect) lay out a document based on the printer that is being used. If the document is transferred to another computer, and a different printer specified, the document may appear with a completely different layout, with line breaks and page breaks appearing in different places. Another reason why a document may appear differently on a different computer is that it may not have the same fonts (typefaces) installed. An alternative font will be substituted, which usually changes the layout. Portability Word provides several options for creating portable documents that is, documents that always keep their appearance no matter which computer or printer you use to view or print them. These options are especially helpful if you share documents with other users, or if you create documents becomes Portability Word provides several options for creating portable documents -that is, documents that always keep their appearance no matter which computer or printer you use to view or print them. Upgradability Software manufacturers commonly bring out upgrades about every two years, to the intense annoyance of many customers who soon find themselves either using out-of-date software or having to pay for the upgrade. Software upgrades frequently cause some or all of the following problems: Documents or applications produced by the upgraded software are not downwardly compatible. In other words, a document written in Version 6 can usually be read in Version 7, but not vice versa. Usually, the newer version allows the user to save the file as a Version 6 file so that it can be read by the earlier version. The new version is likely to contain new features non-existent in earlier versions, so that data or fonnatting may be lost if it is convened to the earlier version for another user. The upgraded software frequently needs more memory, more disk space and a faster processor to work efficiently, meaning that hardware has to be upgraded. On the other hand, of course, the march of progress brings its advantages and a new version often brings impressive improvements in ease of use, functionality and speed. Criteria for Selecting a Software Package The most important factor in evaluating software is how well the software meets your needs, but there are many other factors to consider as well. 1. Compatibility with existing hardware. Will the software run on existing equipment? 2. Compatibility with existing software. Can files from other packages be imported or exported to and from the new package to other packages? 3. Quality of documentation. 4. Ease of learning. How good is the on-line help? Are tutorials available? 5. Ease of use. Is the package easy to use? Are there shortcuts for advanced users? 6. Technical support. Is this available, and at what cost? 7. Upgrade policy. Will future upgrades be available at a discount? Can files crcated in older versions be used without change? 8. Speed. How long does it take to perform complex but frequently performed operations such as database queries. Some database packages, for example, are very fast with small amounts of data but grind to a halt when presented with several thousand records. 9. Cost. This may involve simply the cost of an individual package. If the package is to be used throughout an organisation, the cost of a licensing agreement that specifies how many copies of the software may legally be made, or how many users can use it on a network, has to be investigated. Evaluating software Before selecting a particular software package you could: Read reviews of it in a computer magazine. Magazines commonly compare similar software packages on dozens of different criteria; Consult other users who have experience of the type of software you are thinking of purchasing; Perform benchmark tests (performance tests) to see how fast various packages perform a number of different tasks. Computer magazines often publish the results of benchmark tests. Software reliability As software becomes increasingly complex, it becomes more and more difficult to test. Batch systems, where the data is entered together in a batch, processed and output produced, are relatively easy to test. Test files can be created and expected results of all processing calculated and compared with actual results. If something is wrong, the program can be fixed and the same set of tests run again. With GUI interfaces and on-line systems, however, this type of testing is not possible. It may be impossible to recreate the conditions under which a program crashed. The difficulties arise because: There is no single, well-defined flow of events at the user interface; It is often impossible to restore a database to the condition it was in before a bug was detected. In a client-server environment, the data may be held on different servers and across networks; Rapid, iterative and continuous development techniques mean that software continues to develop and new, weekly versions of systems are released by programmers. Testing simply cannot keep pace with these rapid changes; Users often use new software in ways which were not anticipated by the software engineers who wrote the system. When the system finally crashes, (I was just trying to add a new record and it crashed) it is impossible to retrace the sequence of events that caused the crash; Performance testing is difficult to set up. An on-line, multi-user system that works well when tested with 1,000 records and 2 users may fall over when a million records are added and hundreds of users are simultaneously accessing the database.  AS Module 2 11.4 Types of Software --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Gary West, Deepak Gautam  PAGE 12 Feb 2002 Student Exercises Given an existing hardware platform, selecting the most appropriate software package for a specific application can be a difficult process. (a) Describe the criteria and methods you would use to select the most appropriate software package for a specific application. (16) (b) Users may encounter problems when software manufacturers upgrade a software package. With reference to specific examples describe two such problems. (4) NEAB 1T02 Specimen Paper Qu9 A freelance reporter who regularly contributes articles to various newspapers and magazines is considering which word processing package she should purchase. A friend has said that most modem applications packages enable users to produce files which are portable. With the aid of specific examples discuss this statement. Include in your discussion: An explanation of what portability means in this context; Why portability is important; How the Information Technology industry can encourage this portability. (16) NEAB ITO2 Qu10 1996 Heathcote 2000 Student Activity Find an example of each of the following generic software packages besides those produced by Microsoft. Compare their features with those listed in Heathcote. 1. Word processing 2. Spreadsheets 3. Databases and Electronic mail 4. Presentation Graphics 5. Application Generators Report Generators Web Browsers B. Bird 2000 Student Exercises Describe the difference between applications software and systems software, giving an example of each. (4) NEAB 1T02 Qu2 1996 Describe three housekeeping utilities normally provided with the operating system for a single-user personal computer. Your description should include a typical task for which each utility is used. (6)- NEAB Computing AS Paper 1 Qu8 1996 3) From the experienced users viewpoint, give three functions of an operating system. (3) NEAR 1T02 Specimen Paper Qu 5 An office worker has created a macro which imports data from one spreadsheet file to another and then performs some calculations. However, the macro fails to work as expected when it is used. Explain the term macro as used in the above description. 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