ࡱ> 7 38bjbjUU !7|7|1mlPPPP    00080$1 \233.3.3D36 6 ,6 \\\\\\\$] _2\ 465^646462\6:PP.3D3`G\6:6:6:46P.3 D3 \6:46 \6:6:4?RR6 TD3 3 ` )0 8ST ]\0\S`9`T6:  PPPP  AS Level Module 2 Information : Management and Manipulation Lecture Three Organisation of Data for Effective Retrieval Lecturer: Deepak Gautam Email: gautamd@wolverhamptoncollege.ac.uk Room: 120, Wulfrun Campus Ext: 7527 Electronic Storage of Data A piece of information is stored as a field within a computer system. Fields that are related are kept together in a record and related records are held together as a file. Traditionally files were paper based and kept in manual filing cabinets. Flat files A flat file allows only very simple structuring of the data, and the software that accesses and updates the data is commonly called a File Management System. File management systems (such as the one which forms part of the integrated package MS Works) have been around for a number of years and differ from true Database Management Systems in that the data stored in one file cannot easily be linked to data stored in another file. These so-called flat-files are useful for storing data such as a list of contact names and addresses, a list of student grades or details of a video collection. A spreadsheet can be used as a flat-file database, with a column representing a field and a row representing a record. There are several drawbacks to holding anything except very simple data in a single file. As an example, consider the flat file of information shown in Appendix 1. If ALL the required data is to be held in a single file, the file would also need to contain further details of the customer (such as full address), the items ordered (such as colour, model), the employee (such as work hours, rate of pay) and the supplier of the item (such as supplier address, vat code) as well. Even with the small number of fields shown it is obvious that the file has serious shortcomings. These are described in the following paragraphs. Redundant data The table contains a vast amount of repeated data. Names and numbers are all stored several times, wasting disk space and slowing down any queries that we might make to retrieve information from the table. Data entry will be time-consuming since every time an order is entered, repeated details will have to be typed in as well. If we sell 500 dishwashers, the price, description and supplier details will have to be recorded 500 times.  Errors on input Typographical errors are bound to occur if all these details have to be entered every time a sale is made. In the table above, employee Sarah has had her name spelt wrongly twice. A query to find out the total value of sales made by Sarah will not find them all she will not be pleased when her bonus for selling goods worth over 5000 per day is wrongly calculated as a result! Problems with updating data Suppose Sarah, one of the employees who has made thousands of sales since she was employed, gets married and changes her name. Instead of having to make this change only once, every record that contains her name would have to be updated. Similarly, if details such as address and telephone number of each employee were stored (which they certainly would be), these details would have to be changed in every record if the employee moved or changed their phone number. Problems with modifying data With a single table, problems arise if records need to be added or deleted. When a new employee joins the sales force, there is no way of adding their details to the database until they make their first sale. Similarly, if a record is to be deleted, information will be lost. For example if record number 3 is deleted the information about the price and supplier of the mini-disk play will be lost. Summary In summary, the problems that arise with flat file databases are: Redundant data, which makes the file large, wasting space on disk, and also makes it slow to retrieve information; Errors which arise from typing the same data many times in different records; Difficulties in updating and modifying data. These problems can be solved in the most efficient way possible by using multiple tables in a database to store the data. Heathcote 2000 covers multiple tables and databases as follows:- What is a Database ? A database is a number of files that are related in some way. In total it is a collection of data. . It may be something as simple as a list of names and addresses or details of all the customers, products, orders and payments in a large organisation. It often refers to data held on a computer but non-computerised databases also exist. Some smaller companies, for example, may hold a card index file with details about their stock. Retrieving information from a database The main difference between computerized and non-computerised databases is the speed with which data can be accessed. Information that would previously have taken weeks or even years to gather and collate can now be gathered in a few seconds. A doctors surgery, for example, may hold details on each patient. To find the names and addresses of all patients over 65 in a manual system would involve a painstaking search through every record. The answer could be retrieved from a computerized database in a second or two. A computerized database also makes it possible to analyse data in ways that were previously unthinkable. Retail stores such as Tesco and Sainsburys collect data on customer purchases every time a loyalty card is used. This data can be held in a database and used to build up a profile of what each customer is likely to purchase. Health Authorities can carry out complex analyses linking various illnesses to other factors such as diet or environment. Police databases are used to build up profiles of crimes and criminals and come up with possible suspects. Databases vs. Database Management Systems The software that is used to access, update and manipulate the data in a computerised database is known as a Database Management System. There are many different ways in which data can be organised in a database, but by far the most common is the relational database model. Microsoft Access is an example of a Relational Database Management System (RDBMS). Using multiple tables Using the flat file in Appendix 1, we can move the data about employees into a separate table. At the same time, we will give each customer a unique ID number to make them individually unique. Employees already have their own unique employee number. The three tables shown below hold the same data as before. Employee ServingEmployee NumberCust Id.Customer SurnameCustomer FirstnameCustomer PostcodeKeith458136001DanielsSusanL25 3SHAnn432477002WaltonPamelaSO35 3NXPeter446733003TacquardPhyllisWV12 5FASarah478221004PertSylviaWS10 5DF005GanttGeorgeM30 0MA006DepewJaneyS34 7RF007KenworthPeterWV5 5FR008WorthKeithWV7 9YH009TaylorLindaWV2 5QL Ord. NoOrd. DateItem NoItem DescriptionItem PriceSupplier NameSupplier AccountCust IdEmployee Number119/01/016371Gas Oven325ElectroluxEL3452001478221212/01/017822Curling iron32.5ClairolCL9836002458136326/01/017539Mini-disk play635PioneerPI8325003432477119/01/012344Dishwasher235WhirlpoolWH6281001478221520/01/015532Electric Oven455HotpointHO8317004446733608/01/014227Floor heater29.95PhillipsPH5478005478221712/01/016723Footspa45.5WhirlpoolWH6281006478221819/01/012344Dishwasher235WhirlpoolWH6281007446733919/01/012344Dishwasher235WhirlpoolWH62810084782211015/01/014566Dishwasher399HotpointHO8317009446733119/01/017822Curling iron32.5ClairolCL9836001446733415/01/016723Footspa45.5WhirlpoolWH6281005478221214/01/016371Gas Oven325ElectroluxEL34520024581361120/01/015532Electric Oven455HotpointHO83170074782211208/01/014227Floor heater29.95PhillipsPH54780034581361312/01/016723Footspa45.5WhirlpoolWH6281003446733 We can call these tables Employee, Customer and Orders. The original file in appendix 1 contained 192 fields. The employee table (8 fields) + the customer table (36 fields) + the order table (144 fields) give a new total number of fields of 188. That is a reduction in storage requirements of 2%. But more importantly, a new employee can be added before they make a sale or a new customer can be added before they purchase any equipment. What we have done is leave the employee number and new customer id in the order table to act as a pointer to which employee sold the item and which customer bought the item. All the information about a particular employee can then be looked up in the employee table and all the information about the customer can be looked up in the customer table. Using the same principle, we could set up a separate table for Item to hold the description, price and supplier. It is quite likely that details on each supplier would be held as well. A further table could be set up to hold these details. This principle of giving each entity, (or object or thing) its own table and linking the tables by means of a Primary Key like Employee Number or Customer id is the principle behind relational databases. Relational database management systems (RDMSs) such as MS Access make the process of referring to several different tables to look up data completely transparent to the user. Solving the problems of single table databases One of the problems with holding the data in a single table was the amount of redundant data that needs to be stored. Using a separate table for each entity means that the information only needs to be entered once. This also avoids the problems of typographical errors arising from typing the same data in many different records. Flat file information storage and retrieval systems Before database management systems became popular, it was common practice for each department in a large company to keep their own data on separate files. Thus for example the Payroll department would keep data on employees and their salaries, tax information and so on. The Personnel Department might have a very similar file holding much of the same information, but with some non-overlapping fields. The Sales Department might have a file holding sales figures from which employee bonuses were calculated, which would have to be passed to the Payroll Department. This type of system (the traditional file approach) is also loosely known as a flat file information storage and retrieval system. In addition to the problem of redundant data being stored in several different files, problems arose when it became necessary to add new fields to a file, because all the programs using the file had to be updated to reflect the change even if they did not use the new fields. The advantages of a database system over such a system may be summarised as: data independence quality of management information control over redundancy consistency of data more information available to users greater security of data less lime spent inputting data Exercise from Heathcote 2000 1 Explain by means of an example: (i) what is meant by data redundancy in a flat file information and retrieval system; (2) (ii) how data in such a system might become inconsistent. (2) 2) The data requirements for a booking system are defined as follows. An agency arranges booking of live bands for a number of clubs. Each band is registered with the agency and has its name (unique) recorded, together with the number of musicians, the type of music played and hiring fee. Each band is managed by a manager. A manager may manage several bands. Each manager is assigned an identification number and managers have their name, address and telephone number recorded. Each club is assigned an identification number and clubs have their name, address and telephone number recorded. The agency records details of each booking made between a band and a club for a given date. A band will never have more than one booking on any particular date. Four entities for the booking system are Manager, Club, Band and Booking. Suggest an identifier, with justification, for each of the entities Manager, Club and Band. (3) A relational database is to be used. Describe tables (i.e. suggest field names) for the following entities underlining the primary key in each case: (i) Manager (2) (ii) Club (2) (iii) Band; (4) (iv) Booking. (5)  AS Module 2 11.3 Organisation of Data for Effective Retrieval ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Gary West, Deepak Gautam  PAGE 3 12 Dec 2000 Student Activity Identify the four groups of data that are repeated in the flat file found as Appendix 1 AS Level ICT, BBird 2000  EMBED MSPhotoEd.3  Student Activity Set up the above tables in MS Access with links via the Primary keys. 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